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Question: Discuss about the Landscape Architectural History of South Australia. Answer: Landscape architecture refers to the designing of outdoor areas and structures that help to achieve social, aesthetic and environmental outcomes in a positive way. In order to attain the positive aspects of landscape architecture, prevailing social, environmental, ecological condition are thoroughly investigated so that the outcomes are met with the initial goals (Bull 2016). If one wishes to design landscapes in a successful way, then having a comprehensive idea about how it came to be is essential to gain insights about how to use the different approaches and parameters of landscape architecture so that a balance between the social and the environmental can be established. Without a balance, no structure cannot be deemed successful. The architectural history of South Australia has evolved over time and gradually. It has distinct characteristics and distinguishable from other parts of the country. The architecture of South Australia can be divided into six chronological categories: Old Colonial to 1840, Victorian to 1890, Federation to 1915, Interwar, Postwar and the Late Twentieth Century from 1960 (Beynon et al. 2014). These different times can be looked into to better understand the trends of South Australian architecture so that the distinct characteristics of the regions architecture can be given a proper idea. Australias architecture has always kept a pace with its historical economic patterns. Just like the countrys financial and other social parameters, the architecture of Australia has also gone through periods of prosperity and then periods of contraction. Cycles of excellence of decadence has been experienced, but despite the fluctuating behaviour the architecture of the country has always remained of importance (Leach 2013). The humble beginnings of the countrys architectural history have always had an impact on the later affluent times. The overall goodness of the countrys people and its roots have made sure that whatever happens, happens for a good reason and this sense of something good has lasting impacts during the periods of architectural appreciation. All of the countrys history has not been glorious or even something to be proud on, if facts and past behaviour are to be acknowledged. When the British came to the country, they were only focused upon occupying the lands and take the aborigines out of their own lands (Jacobs et al. 2016). The British told themselves that the native people of Australia were nomads and they did not reside in any structured homes, rather they were hunter-gatherers, in order to validate their actions against the aborigines. The atrocious behaviour did manage to get the country under British occupation and they became the primary owners of the lands. These self-assurances formed the very basis of the British policy of terra nullius, which almost legalised the taking over of the native lands as the British saw fit (Kinniburgh, Crosby and Hromek 2016). It is only recently that archeological findings and research has proved that the native people of Australia were not only hunter-gatherers, but they built s heltered homes as well. Moreover, they also had stores where they sold their crops and other produce. The indigenous people also used to build dams, manage lands, knew the use of wells and learned how to sow the lands (Wallis et al. 2017). The social structures, cultures, lifestyle choices and climate of each of the indigenous groups and tribes were the deciding factor behind their architectural distinctions and characteristics. Though most of the houses that were built were made of canes or other similar products, there were also houses that used sandstones as the prime material. The European foreigners ignored the architecture of the aboriginal and the Torres Strait Islander people (Bruce et al. 2015). All across Australia, diverse forms of architectural characteristics were noticed. When the British arrived, the first government buildings were reflections of European architectural norms and styles, which derived most of its influences from contemporary British structures. Georgian architecture was one of the most notable styles that flourished during this early times of the British occupation. Another European style that gained popularity in the 19th century was the Gothic Revival. Gothic ornamentation, pointed arches, battlements and other similar architectural traits were found in many buildings including churches, banks, university buildings and even in residential homes. In the mid-19th century, with the emergence of the Australian gold rush, came bands of people in search of fortune and prosperity. With them came a surge of Victorian architecture (Guan et al. 2014). During this time, Italian architecture also had major reflections in the architecture of Australia. This specific style became very popular as it gave the scope for richer display of prosperity. In the later part of this period, buildings were becoming burdened with too many columns, lavish decorations and spectacular entrances. This was later to be identified as the Boom style. As stated before, the Australian architecture has been consistent with the general architectural trends of the Western world. To adjust to the climatic conditions of the country, some specific and necessary adjustments had to be made and special designs were adapted. However, during the early British days, the countrys new structures were all highly, and primarily, influenced by the British designs. In more recent times, the Australian architecture has reflected a more Americanised urban designing. The increasingly multicultural Australian society has made designs and other structure to become highly diversified. Australian architects have built some of the most notable buildings on the plants, like the Sydney Opera House, designed by Jorn Utzon, and the new Parliament House, which was designed by Romaldo Girgola. Influence of climate on Australias buildings can be noticed in rural structures like the Queenslander. The regions history and identity have also shaped the countrys architecture. Even if the countrys distinct architectural form started to build during the 20th century, it was initiated long back, as early as late 1700s. Governor Phillip commissioned a prisoner, James Bloodsworth, to build permanent buildings and he was probable the first architect who tried to create a style that was Australias own. He designed the first Government House, and then went on to build structures for the soldiers and the prisoners. His efforts and requirements helped the country to make its first brickmaking industry. However, the production quality was not good and the bricks were soft and brittle (Gua n et al. 2014). Substandard equipment and inferior materials made the buildings not very strong or not ideal to withstand the test of time, but during the time, they served their purpose. During the early years of the 20th century, the country ushered in a huge impact of Federation architecture and started with a style of their own. The modern architectural styles that were being adapted in this century were all helping the countrys architecture to have an identity of its own, which rejected historicism. Colonial buildings had the advantage of being very simple in nature, which made it easier to adapt to this type of architectural style (Anthony and Grant 2016). The contemporary European architecture was named after the monarchs of England who were reigning at that time, all named George. Georgian architecture was much more comfortable with, and focused upon, symmetry rather than ornamentations or much fancy designs. This aspect of the architecture style made it the obvious choice for Bloodsworth and the other builders at that time as none of them were good architects or builders. Even the residential homes started to use this style as it was quick and easy (Bowring 2014). The verandah was one of the most notable local input in the Australian architecture. This looked attractive as well as provided shade. With the rise of pastoralists, who were building solid, sustainable and single story buildings, the verandah became even more popular (David and Thomas 2016). Moreover, the major advantage of this specific part of the building was that it could be used in many different ways to infuse it with the symmetry aspect of building architectures which was widespread at the time. Georgian architecture saw massive and wide use of the verandah in the buildings of Australia. Another reason for this simplicity to arise was the economic condition of the country. Since the colony was new and was only starting to form, it was a requirement to keep the buildings and the architecture style minimalistic so that it could be afforded by most. This simplicity is the most important attribute of the Australian architecture. The pressing need to adapt to the conditions of the new country made sure that the available resources and materials were all used in the best way possible, in the most optimal way they could be (David and Thomas 2016). A great sense of proportion was seen in the buildings, and, even though, the buildings were not large of decorated with much ornamentation, the buildings reflected a sort of honesty and passion, that are valued highly in the architectural worth. These buildings were also fundamentally very sound (Jones et al. 2014). The buildings of Australia were free of the elaborate facades with Renaissance influences. The counterparts of Europ e at that time were all showcasing exquisite examples of ornamented facades on every building, but it was not very for the Europeans to hold on to their architecture in the new country where resources were limited and the craftsmanship was subpar. Instead, what the colonial designers did, was to design the walls themselves and made them in textured patterns with a great sense of proportion (Guan et al. 2014). The details on the walls were always appropriately done, even if they seemed crude at times. The classic characteristics of the Australian architecture were left out when the suburbs were being developed in the 20th century. Almost 85 percent of all Australians have lived in these suburbs since 1900. Despite these being popular and the go-to option for many, these have been described as Australias worst failing by critics (Grundy et al. 2015). The colonial structures bore resemblance from many different parts of the world. The colonies across the world at that time all had buildings which had similarities among them and were part of the broad western colonial architecture. The early American styled buildings were rich and varied greatly in terms of detail from the buildings that were made by the in the Dutch colony of Cape Town (Bruce et al. 2015). The buildings of 19th century Cambodia are of the same kind as those in Australia, but with distinct characteristics. The buildings of New South Wales have remarkable traits that are similar to the colonial structures and buildings of India. The tropics had major inputs in the South Australian architecture. The verandah was one such inclusion that came to Australia from the tropical colonies, via England. The early South Australian houses had huge similarities with the buildings in the southern part of England. It is a popular idea that if a house from a southern English county was to be replaced by one from South Australia in the early colonial period, the substitution would almost be impossible to detect (Beynon et al. 2014). The early colonial buildings of southern Australia had to adapt to the unique climate of the country: its flora and fauna, intense heat in the summer and cloudy shadows. The South Australian landscape and the environment of the country had the most important influences on the early architecture. The first houses that were built in Queensland all had broad verandahs, which were gracefully shaded with corrugated roofing iron, roof ventilators and stumps (Guan et al. 2014). The architectural adaptations helped in keeping the houses cooler, making room for wind to flow within the buildings, as well as serving as a run off for the heavy rainfall that occur seasonally, but intensely (Jacobs et al. 2016). The early beach houses had fully opening walls, which proved to be of great help when it came to cooling down the houses. Overlapping roof layers were used to make sure air can move in between the layers and could keep the structures cooler than the outside temperature. Slats were used in the wool sheds to prevent the sun from heating up the buildings. Slatted floors in the verandahs allow air flow. These early colonial designs and architectural characteristics are still used in the South Australian buildings to this day because of their practicality. The aboriginals believed that a building should be such that it would lightly touch the ground and float above the land. These means that the human made buildings and constructions should not be disturbing the nature. The contemporary Australian architects and designers adapt this saying of the native people to build the structures in modern day South Australia (Marshall, Williams and Morgan 2015). The colonial British understood that the buildings have to be built in a way which gives an elaborate knowledge of the impact of the Southern Australian climate on the materials. In 1835, Greenway had already understood the climate has important implications and he created his designs for buildings in ways that went with the flow of the country, and did not try to stand against them (Razzaghmanesh, Beecham and Salemi 2016). The governors of the country used to give away free land to people. The priority was to develop the countrys different conditions and this had to be done as articulately as possible. This made it possible for even poor people to own large tracts of land. The fact that they did not have to pay for it gave them extra disposable money in their hands. The used the wood from the timber they felled (Jacobs et al. 2016). The only rule they had to follow was to make sure they cleared their own lands. It was a common colonial trait in South Australia to have the roof of the house to be independent of the internal structure (Anthony and Grant 2016). While modern day houses use the walls as the pillars to hold the roof, the early colonial buildings used to have awkwardly placed beams to carry the weight, often resulting in a hollow roof. Consistently misusing beams as components of the buildings was another key feature of the early colonial buildings and this shows the lack of scientific knowledge among the first colonials (Firth 2013). The designers did not have the fundamental knowledge about how to use the edges of a beam to help it support weights and this led to a lot of potential load bearing capacity to be wasted. However, it is a fact that the wider upper surface of the beams did give a lot of space which was convenient for working. The post war era saw a massive cut on housing expenses. Tradesmen materials were running a shortage (Meijering et al. 2015). In order to lower the building expenses of the houses, the ceilings of buildings were being lowered. This trend created bungalows. This trend of houses rendered most details, which were the characteristics of South Australian buildings, to become lost during the period of 1915 to 1940 (O'Neill 2014). The south Australian buildings have had long traditions and specific characteristics that have been influenced and shaped by the landscape and climate of the region. This has made sure that the building styles of the southern part of the country is different than the buildings in other areas of Australia. The buildings have been built based on the materials that were available in south Australia and the environment and the tradition of the land all have played crucial role in creating the distinct style it has today. References Anthony, T. and Grant, E., 2016. Courthouse Design Principles to Dignify Spaces for Indigenous Users: preliminary observations. 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Making landscape architecture in Australia; New suburban: Reinventing the family home in Australia and New Zealand [Book Review].Green: sustainable architecture and landscape design, (35), p.98. Razzaghmanesh, M., Beecham, S. and Salemi, T., 2016. The role of green roofs in mitigating Urban Heat Island effects in the metropolitan area of Adelaide, South Australia.Urban Forestry Urban Greening,15, pp.89-102. Wallis, L.A., Davidson, I., Burke, H., Mitchell, S., Barker, B., Hatte, E., Cole, N. and Lowe, K.M., 2017. Aboriginal stone huts along the Georgina River, southwest Queensland.Queensland Archaeological Research,20, pp.1-8.